WASHINGTON — Despite a surge in satellite deployments, the fundamental operating model for spacecraft hasn’t evolved much since Sputnik launched in 1957: build it, launch it, use it, discard it. This approach persists even as new technologies promise to make satellites serviceable in orbit, according to a Government Accountability Office report released July 10.
“Since the advent of artificial satellites, almost all have been ‘single use’: assembled on Earth, sustained in space with no outside intervention beyond communication, and discarded or abandoned when no longer functional,” the GAO stated in its analysis of In-Space Servicing, Assembly, and Manufacturing (ISAM) capabilities.
Some ISAM technologies are not new. In 2007, DARPA’s Orbital Express mission successfully demonstrated on-orbit refueling and autonomous satellite servicing. Yet the program was shelved, as the Pentagon saw no operational requirement. The military has traditionally designed satellites for single-use missions, avoiding the complexity of in-space logistics.
DARPA’s Robotic Servicing of Geosynchronous Satellites technology is scheduled for deployment in 2026 on a Northrop Grumman SpaceLogistics vehicle that will attempt to attach propulsion modules to satellites. SpaceLogistics has deployed two Mission Extension Vehicles (MEVs) to extend the life of two Intelsat communications satellites — making it the only U.S. company to provide commercial on-orbit servicing to date.
Still, despite these technological milestones, both NASA and the Department of Defense have hesitated to fully commit, the GAO report noted. NASA recently canceled its high-profile OSAM-1 mission and has not required in-space refueling capability for the upcoming Nancy Grace Roman Space Telescope, though it will be partially serviceable.
The Pentagon, meanwhile, continues to view ISAM through an experimental lens, with programs like the Astroscale Prototype Servicer for Refueling (APS-R), Orbit Fab’s fuel depot, and the Tetra-5 demonstration. But as the GAO notes, “there are no plans for a meaningful service-wide requirement for serviceability.”
A shift toward proliferated constellations of smaller satellites — particularly in low Earth orbit — has also influenced military thinking. Shorter life spans and lower costs reduce the incentive to repair rather than replace.
The slow adoption reflects a coordination problem between satellite operators and service providers. Operators don’t design spacecraft with servicing interfaces because few providers offer the capability. Service providers don’t develop ISAM infrastructure because there’s limited demand from satellites designed to be serviced.
“It’s a classic chicken-and-egg dilemma,” the GAO said.
Additional barriers include fragmented regulations, limited testbeds for validating ISAM technologies, export controls that hamper international collaboration, and the absence of widely adopted standards for critical interfaces like refueling ports.
International developments
In recent weeks, Chinese satellites Shijian-21 and Shijian-25 conducted proximity maneuvers in geosynchronous orbit, believed to be precursors to an in-space refueling test. The activity signals that China views ISAM as a strategic capability — not merely a scientific or commercial curiosity.
The GAO report emphasizes that ISAM could reduce costs and risks while increasing operational flexibility. The technology could enable better responses to satellite failures after launch and potentially open pathways to in-space assembly and manufacturing capabilities.
However, companies and government agencies remain hesitant to commit significant resources to developing these capabilities. The report suggests DoD and NASA consider requiring serviceability features on future government satellites to prime the market.